REDUCING RELIANCE ON ARTIFICIAL DIETS: BIOECONOMIC NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES FOR MAINTAINING SPODOPTERA LITTORALIS (BOISD.) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) COLONIES
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Aug 25, 2025
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Abstract
The Egyptian cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis, is a widely distributed polyphagous species that attacks several economically important host plants. Laboratory colonies of this species have been vital for pest management research, with more recent applications emerging in the context of sustainable food systems. Current reliance on artificial diets for colony maintenance is expensive and environmentally unsustainable. In this study, alternative bioeconomic dietary strategies are investigated using dandelion leaves (D) and unsold market vegetables (beetroot and potato mix, BP) as substitutes for the standard artificial diet (S). Over five generations, key life history parameters, including larval duration, survival, final instar weight, pupation success, adult emergence, and fecundity, were monitored under controlled laboratory conditions. The results showed that larvae fed on D exhibited the shortest development time, highest survival rates, and superior fecundity compared to those reared on other diets. The BP diet supported performance comparable to the artificial diet. These findings show that alternative diets can sustain S. littoralis colonies, enhance certain biological traits, and offer a cost-effective, sustainable approach to insect farming.
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Trajković, A., Ilić Milošević, M., Stanković, S., Anđelković, M., Popović, L., Marjanović, N., Živković, A., & Žikić, V. (2025). REDUCING RELIANCE ON ARTIFICIAL DIETS: BIOECONOMIC NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES FOR MAINTAINING SPODOPTERA LITTORALIS (BOISD.) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) COLONIES. Acta Entomologica Serbica, 30(1). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16942616
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Copyright: © 2019 The ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF SERBIA Staff. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
References
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Alizadeh, F., Aghajani, H., Mahboudi, F., Talebkhan, Y., Arefian, E., Samavat, S., & Raufi, R. (2024). Optimization of culture condition for Spodoptera frugiperda by design of experiment approach and evaluation of its effect on the expression of hemagglutinin protein of influenza virus. Plos one, 19(8), e0308547.
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Angulo, J., Mahecha, L., Yepes, S. A., Yepes, A. M., Bustamante, G., Jaramillo, H., Valencia, E., Villamil, T., & Gallo, J. (2012). Quantitative and nutritional characterization of fruit and vegetable waste from marketplace: a potential use as bovine feedstuff?.Journal of Environmental Management, 95, 203-209.
Ayandokun, A. E., & Alamu, O. T. (2020). Cocoon production efficiency of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) in response to host shift between two selected mulberry varieties. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 40, 49-52.
Baiano, A. (2020). Edible insects: An overview on nutritional characteristics, safety, farming, production technologies, regulatory framework, and socio-economic and ethical implications. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 100, 35-50.
Bakshi, M. P. S., Wadhwa, M., & Makkar, H. P. (2016). Waste to worth: vegetable wastes as animal feed. CABI Reviews, 1-26.
Cabello, T., Rodriguez Menendez, H., & Vargas, P. (1984). Utilización de una dieta artificial simple en la cría de Heliothis armigera Hb., Spodoptera littoralis Boisd. y Trigonophora meticulosa (Lep.: Noctuidae). Anales del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, 27(9), 101-107.
Cadinu, L. A., Barra, P., Torre, F., Delogu, F., & Madau, F. A. (2020). Insect rearing: Potential, challenges, and circularity. Sustainability, 12(11), 4567.
Cappellozza, S., Leonardi, M. G., Savoldelli, S., Carminati, D., Rizzolo, A., Cortellino, G., Terova, G., Moretto, E., Badaile, A., Concheri, G., Saviane, A., Bruno, D., Bonelli, M., Caccia, S., Casartelli, M., & Tettamanti, G. (2019). A first attempt to produce proteins from insects by means of a circular economy. Animals, 9(5), 278.
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Carey, J. R. (2001). Insect biodemography. Annual review of entomology, 46(1), 79-110.
Dickie, F., Miyamoto, M., & Collins, C. M. T. (2019). The potential of insect farming to increase food security. Edible Insects, 1-10.
Du Plessis, H., Schlemmer, M. L., & Van den Berg, J. (2020). The effect of temperature on the development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 11(4), 228.
El-Awady, S. M., Ali, F. A. F., Abdel-Sattar, M. M., & Hafez, S. S. (2009). Comparative study for some biological aspects of the egyptian cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd) reared on castor bean leaves and artificial diets. The Journal of Agricultural Science, Mansoura University, 34(4), 3913-3917.
El-Refaie, R. M., Shaurub, E. S. H., Abd-Allah, G. E., Ebeid, A. A., & Abouelnaga, Z. S. (2024). Effect of four host plants on the life history and nutritional indices of Spodoptera littoralis. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 1-11.
Fan, M., Zhang, X., Song, H., Zhang, Y. (2023). Dandelion (Taraxacum genus): A review of chemical constituents and pharmacological effects. Molecules, 28, 5016.
Feng, Y., Chen, X. M., Zhao, M., He, Z., Sun, L., Wang, C. Y., & Ding, W. F. (2017). Edible insects in China: Utilization and prospects. Insect science, 25(2), 184-198.
Francuski, L., & Beukeboom, L. W. (2020). Insects in production–an introduction. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 168(6-7), 422-431.
Ge, S., Chu, B., He, W., Jiang, S., Lv, C., Gao, L., Sun, X., Yang, X., & Wu, K. (2022). Wheat-bran-based artificial diet for mass culturing of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 13(12), 1177.
Gupta, G. P., Rani, S., Birah, A., & Raghuraman, M. (2005). Improved artificial diet for mass rearing of the tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 25(1), 55-58.
Haghani, M., Fathipour, Y., Talebi, A. A., & Baniameri, V. (2006). Comparative demography of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on cucumber at seven constant temperatures. Insect Science, 13(6), 477-483.
Hemmati, S. A., Shishehbor, P., & Stelinski, L. L. (2022). Life table parameters and digestive enzyme activity of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on selected legume cultivars. Insects, 13(7), 661.
Khanal, S., Karimi, K., Majumdar, S., Kumar, V., Verma, R., Bhatia, S. K., Kuca, K., Esteban, J., & Kumar, D. (2024). Sustainable utilization and valorization of potato waste: State of the art, challenges, and perspectives. Biomass Conversion and biorefinery, 14(19), 23335-23360.
Kolliopoulou, A., & Swevers, L. (2014). Recent progress in RNAi research in Lepidoptera: Intracellular machinery, antiviral immune response and prospects for insect pest control. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 6, 28-34.
Kouřimská, L. & Adámková, A. (2016). Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects. NFS Journal, 4, 22-26.
Madau, F. A., Arru, B., Furesi, R., & Pulina, P. (2020). Insect farming for feed and food production from a circular business model perspective. Sustainability, 12(13), 5418.
Makkar, A. W., Al-Shannaf, H. M. H., El-Hamaky, M. A., & Sokkar, A. L. (2015). Life table parameters of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants. Journal of Plant Protection and Pathology, 6(1), 115-128.
Mbata, K. J., Chidumayo, E. N., & Lwatula, C. M. (2002). Traditional regulation of edible caterpillar exploitation in the Kopa area of Mpika district in northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Conservation, 6, 115-130.
Mohamed, H, A., Alkordy, M. W., & Atta, A. A. (2019). Effect of host plants on biology of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.). Egyptian Academic Journal of Biological Sciences. A, Entomology, 12(6), 65-73.
Mokbel, E. S., & Huesien, A. (2020). Sublethal effects of emamectin benzoate on life table parameters of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.). Bulletin of the National Research Centre, 44(1), 1-8.
Nemadodzi, L. E., Managa, G. M., & Prinsloo, G. (2023). The use of Gonimbrasia belina (Westwood, 1849) and Cirina forda (Westwood, 1849) caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Sarturniidae) as food sources and income generators in Africa. Foods, 12(11), 2184.
Ojeda-Avila, T., Woods, H. A., & Raguso, R. A. (2003). Effects of dietary variation on growth, composition, and maturation of Manduca sexta (Sphingidae: Lepidoptera). Journal of Insect Physiology, 49(4), 293-306.
Pinto, J. R. L., Torres, A. F., Truzi, C. C., Vieira, N. F., Vacari, A. M., & De Bortoli, S. A. (2019). Artificial corn-based diet for rearing Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of Insect Science, 19(4), 1-8.
Powell, J. A., Mitter, C., & Farrell, B. (1998). Evolution of larval food preferences in Lepidoptera. In N.P. Kristensen N.P. (Ed.), “Lepidoptera, Moths and Butterflies, Volume 1: Evolution, Systematics, and Biogeography”, de Gruyter, 4, 403-422.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Moreno, J. M., Vázquez, A. I., Landero, I., Oliva-Rivera, H., & Camacho, V. H. (2011). Edible Lepidoptera in Mexico: Geographic distribution, ethnicity, economic and nutritional importance for rural people. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7, 1-22.
Rumpold, B. A., & Schlüter, O.K. (2013). Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 57, 802–823.
Sayed, W. A., Ibrahim, N. S., Hatab, M. H., Zhu, F., & Rumpold, B. A. (2019). Comparative study of the use of insect meal from Spodoptera littoralis and Bactrocera zonata for feeding Japanese quail chicks. Animals, 9(4), 136.
Shorey, H. H., & Hale, R. L. (1965). Mass-rearing of larvae of nine noctuid species on a simple artificial medium. Journal of Economic Entomology, 58, 522-524.
Siddiqui, S. A., Ngah, N., Eddy-Doh, A. M., Ucak, I., Afreen, M., Fernando, I., Singh, S., Shaha, M. A., Povetkin, S. N., & Castro-Muñoz, R. (2023). Edible Lepidoptera as human foods–a comprehensive review. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 10(1), 25-49.
Sorour, M. A., Khamiss, O., Abd El-Wahab, A. S., El-Sheikh, M. A. K., & Abul-ElaAn, S. (2011). Economically Modified Semi-Synthetic Diet for Mass Rearing the Egyptian Cotton Leaf Worm Spodoptera littolaris. Academic Journal of Entomology, 4(3), 118-123.
Stoica, F., Râpeanu, G., Rațu, R. N., Stănciuc, N., Croitoru, C., Țopa, D., & Jităreanu, G. (2025). Red Beetroot and Its By-Products: A Comprehensive Review of Phytochemicals, Extraction Methods, Health Benefits, and Applications. Agriculture, 15(3), 270.
Su, S., Wang, X., Jian, C., Ignatus, A. D., Zhang, X., Peng, X., & Chen, M. (2020). Life-history traits and flight capacity of Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) using artificial diets with varying sugar content. Journal of Economic Entomology, 114(1), 112-121.
Tedesco, D. E. A., Scarioni, S., Tava, A., Panseri, S., & Zuorro, A. (2021). Fruit and vegetable wholesale market waste: Safety and nutritional characterisation for their potential re-use in livestock nutrition. Sustainability, 13(16), 9478.
van Huis, A., van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G., & Vantomme, P. (2013). Edible Insects. Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security, FAO Forestry Papers, Rome, 201 pp.
Varelas, V. (2019). Food Wastes as a Potential New Source for Edible Insect Mass Production for Food and Feed: A review. Fermentation, 5(3), 81.
Vargas, R. I., Walsh, W. A., Kanehisa, D., Jang, E. B., & Armstrong, J. W. (1997). Demography of four Hawaiian fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) reared at five constant temperatures. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 90(2), 162-168.
Velasco, L. R. I., & Walter, G. H. (1993). Potential of host-switching in Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to enhance survival and reproduction. Environmental Entomology, 22(2), 326-333.
Yen, A. L. (2015). Insects as food and feed in the Asia Pacific region: Current perspectives and future directions. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 1, 33–55.
Yi, C., He, Q., Wang, L., & Kuang, R. (2010). The Utilization of Insect-resources in Chinese Rural Area. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 2, 146–154.
Alekaram, S., Hemmati, S. A., Ziaee, M., & Stelinski, L. L. (2024). Evaluation of diets from various maize hybrids reveals potential tolerance traits against Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd) as measured by developmental and digestive performance. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 114(5), 642-651.
Alizadeh, F., Aghajani, H., Mahboudi, F., Talebkhan, Y., Arefian, E., Samavat, S., & Raufi, R. (2024). Optimization of culture condition for Spodoptera frugiperda by design of experiment approach and evaluation of its effect on the expression of hemagglutinin protein of influenza virus. Plos one, 19(8), e0308547.
Anderson, P., Hilker, M., & Löfqvist, J. (1995). Larval diet influence on oviposition behaviour in Spodoptera littoralis. Entomologia experimentalis et applicata, 74(1), 71-82.
Angulo, J., Mahecha, L., Yepes, S. A., Yepes, A. M., Bustamante, G., Jaramillo, H., Valencia, E., Villamil, T., & Gallo, J. (2012). Quantitative and nutritional characterization of fruit and vegetable waste from marketplace: a potential use as bovine feedstuff?.Journal of Environmental Management, 95, 203-209.
Ayandokun, A. E., & Alamu, O. T. (2020). Cocoon production efficiency of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) in response to host shift between two selected mulberry varieties. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 40, 49-52.
Baiano, A. (2020). Edible insects: An overview on nutritional characteristics, safety, farming, production technologies, regulatory framework, and socio-economic and ethical implications. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 100, 35-50.
Bakshi, M. P. S., Wadhwa, M., & Makkar, H. P. (2016). Waste to worth: vegetable wastes as animal feed. CABI Reviews, 1-26.
Cabello, T., Rodriguez Menendez, H., & Vargas, P. (1984). Utilización de una dieta artificial simple en la cría de Heliothis armigera Hb., Spodoptera littoralis Boisd. y Trigonophora meticulosa (Lep.: Noctuidae). Anales del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, 27(9), 101-107.
Cadinu, L. A., Barra, P., Torre, F., Delogu, F., & Madau, F. A. (2020). Insect rearing: Potential, challenges, and circularity. Sustainability, 12(11), 4567.
Cappellozza, S., Leonardi, M. G., Savoldelli, S., Carminati, D., Rizzolo, A., Cortellino, G., Terova, G., Moretto, E., Badaile, A., Concheri, G., Saviane, A., Bruno, D., Bonelli, M., Caccia, S., Casartelli, M., & Tettamanti, G. (2019). A first attempt to produce proteins from insects by means of a circular economy. Animals, 9(5), 278.
Carey, J. R. (1993). Applied demography for biologists: with special emphasis on insects. Oxford University Press.
Carey, J. R. (2001). Insect biodemography. Annual review of entomology, 46(1), 79-110.
Dickie, F., Miyamoto, M., & Collins, C. M. T. (2019). The potential of insect farming to increase food security. Edible Insects, 1-10.
Du Plessis, H., Schlemmer, M. L., & Van den Berg, J. (2020). The effect of temperature on the development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 11(4), 228.
El-Awady, S. M., Ali, F. A. F., Abdel-Sattar, M. M., & Hafez, S. S. (2009). Comparative study for some biological aspects of the egyptian cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd) reared on castor bean leaves and artificial diets. The Journal of Agricultural Science, Mansoura University, 34(4), 3913-3917.
El-Refaie, R. M., Shaurub, E. S. H., Abd-Allah, G. E., Ebeid, A. A., & Abouelnaga, Z. S. (2024). Effect of four host plants on the life history and nutritional indices of Spodoptera littoralis. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 1-11.
Fan, M., Zhang, X., Song, H., Zhang, Y. (2023). Dandelion (Taraxacum genus): A review of chemical constituents and pharmacological effects. Molecules, 28, 5016.
Feng, Y., Chen, X. M., Zhao, M., He, Z., Sun, L., Wang, C. Y., & Ding, W. F. (2017). Edible insects in China: Utilization and prospects. Insect science, 25(2), 184-198.
Francuski, L., & Beukeboom, L. W. (2020). Insects in production–an introduction. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 168(6-7), 422-431.
Ge, S., Chu, B., He, W., Jiang, S., Lv, C., Gao, L., Sun, X., Yang, X., & Wu, K. (2022). Wheat-bran-based artificial diet for mass culturing of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 13(12), 1177.
Gupta, G. P., Rani, S., Birah, A., & Raghuraman, M. (2005). Improved artificial diet for mass rearing of the tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 25(1), 55-58.
Haghani, M., Fathipour, Y., Talebi, A. A., & Baniameri, V. (2006). Comparative demography of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on cucumber at seven constant temperatures. Insect Science, 13(6), 477-483.
Hemmati, S. A., Shishehbor, P., & Stelinski, L. L. (2022). Life table parameters and digestive enzyme activity of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on selected legume cultivars. Insects, 13(7), 661.
Khanal, S., Karimi, K., Majumdar, S., Kumar, V., Verma, R., Bhatia, S. K., Kuca, K., Esteban, J., & Kumar, D. (2024). Sustainable utilization and valorization of potato waste: State of the art, challenges, and perspectives. Biomass Conversion and biorefinery, 14(19), 23335-23360.
Kolliopoulou, A., & Swevers, L. (2014). Recent progress in RNAi research in Lepidoptera: Intracellular machinery, antiviral immune response and prospects for insect pest control. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 6, 28-34.
Kouřimská, L. & Adámková, A. (2016). Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects. NFS Journal, 4, 22-26.
Madau, F. A., Arru, B., Furesi, R., & Pulina, P. (2020). Insect farming for feed and food production from a circular business model perspective. Sustainability, 12(13), 5418.
Makkar, A. W., Al-Shannaf, H. M. H., El-Hamaky, M. A., & Sokkar, A. L. (2015). Life table parameters of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different host plants. Journal of Plant Protection and Pathology, 6(1), 115-128.
Mbata, K. J., Chidumayo, E. N., & Lwatula, C. M. (2002). Traditional regulation of edible caterpillar exploitation in the Kopa area of Mpika district in northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Conservation, 6, 115-130.
Mohamed, H, A., Alkordy, M. W., & Atta, A. A. (2019). Effect of host plants on biology of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.). Egyptian Academic Journal of Biological Sciences. A, Entomology, 12(6), 65-73.
Mokbel, E. S., & Huesien, A. (2020). Sublethal effects of emamectin benzoate on life table parameters of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.). Bulletin of the National Research Centre, 44(1), 1-8.
Nemadodzi, L. E., Managa, G. M., & Prinsloo, G. (2023). The use of Gonimbrasia belina (Westwood, 1849) and Cirina forda (Westwood, 1849) caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Sarturniidae) as food sources and income generators in Africa. Foods, 12(11), 2184.
Ojeda-Avila, T., Woods, H. A., & Raguso, R. A. (2003). Effects of dietary variation on growth, composition, and maturation of Manduca sexta (Sphingidae: Lepidoptera). Journal of Insect Physiology, 49(4), 293-306.
Pinto, J. R. L., Torres, A. F., Truzi, C. C., Vieira, N. F., Vacari, A. M., & De Bortoli, S. A. (2019). Artificial corn-based diet for rearing Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of Insect Science, 19(4), 1-8.
Powell, J. A., Mitter, C., & Farrell, B. (1998). Evolution of larval food preferences in Lepidoptera. In N.P. Kristensen N.P. (Ed.), “Lepidoptera, Moths and Butterflies, Volume 1: Evolution, Systematics, and Biogeography”, de Gruyter, 4, 403-422.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Moreno, J. M., Vázquez, A. I., Landero, I., Oliva-Rivera, H., & Camacho, V. H. (2011). Edible Lepidoptera in Mexico: Geographic distribution, ethnicity, economic and nutritional importance for rural people. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7, 1-22.
Rumpold, B. A., & Schlüter, O.K. (2013). Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 57, 802–823.
Sayed, W. A., Ibrahim, N. S., Hatab, M. H., Zhu, F., & Rumpold, B. A. (2019). Comparative study of the use of insect meal from Spodoptera littoralis and Bactrocera zonata for feeding Japanese quail chicks. Animals, 9(4), 136.
Shorey, H. H., & Hale, R. L. (1965). Mass-rearing of larvae of nine noctuid species on a simple artificial medium. Journal of Economic Entomology, 58, 522-524.
Siddiqui, S. A., Ngah, N., Eddy-Doh, A. M., Ucak, I., Afreen, M., Fernando, I., Singh, S., Shaha, M. A., Povetkin, S. N., & Castro-Muñoz, R. (2023). Edible Lepidoptera as human foods–a comprehensive review. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 10(1), 25-49.
Sorour, M. A., Khamiss, O., Abd El-Wahab, A. S., El-Sheikh, M. A. K., & Abul-ElaAn, S. (2011). Economically Modified Semi-Synthetic Diet for Mass Rearing the Egyptian Cotton Leaf Worm Spodoptera littolaris. Academic Journal of Entomology, 4(3), 118-123.
Stoica, F., Râpeanu, G., Rațu, R. N., Stănciuc, N., Croitoru, C., Țopa, D., & Jităreanu, G. (2025). Red Beetroot and Its By-Products: A Comprehensive Review of Phytochemicals, Extraction Methods, Health Benefits, and Applications. Agriculture, 15(3), 270.
Su, S., Wang, X., Jian, C., Ignatus, A. D., Zhang, X., Peng, X., & Chen, M. (2020). Life-history traits and flight capacity of Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) using artificial diets with varying sugar content. Journal of Economic Entomology, 114(1), 112-121.
Tedesco, D. E. A., Scarioni, S., Tava, A., Panseri, S., & Zuorro, A. (2021). Fruit and vegetable wholesale market waste: Safety and nutritional characterisation for their potential re-use in livestock nutrition. Sustainability, 13(16), 9478.
van Huis, A., van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G., & Vantomme, P. (2013). Edible Insects. Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security, FAO Forestry Papers, Rome, 201 pp.
Varelas, V. (2019). Food Wastes as a Potential New Source for Edible Insect Mass Production for Food and Feed: A review. Fermentation, 5(3), 81.
Vargas, R. I., Walsh, W. A., Kanehisa, D., Jang, E. B., & Armstrong, J. W. (1997). Demography of four Hawaiian fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) reared at five constant temperatures. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 90(2), 162-168.
Velasco, L. R. I., & Walter, G. H. (1993). Potential of host-switching in Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to enhance survival and reproduction. Environmental Entomology, 22(2), 326-333.
Yen, A. L. (2015). Insects as food and feed in the Asia Pacific region: Current perspectives and future directions. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 1, 33–55.
Yi, C., He, Q., Wang, L., & Kuang, R. (2010). The Utilization of Insect-resources in Chinese Rural Area. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 2, 146–154.